Answer: Social stratification refers to the systematic process by which societies rank categories of people in a hierarchy, resulting in unequal distribution of resources, power, and prestige. This universal phenomenon creates distinct layers or strata, determining individuals' life chances and social positions. Sociologists identify several primary forms of social stratification, which vary significantly across different historical periods and cultures in terms of their rigidity, basis of differentiati...

Answer: Karl Marx's theory of social stratification fundamentally posits that society is divided into classes based on their relationship to the 'means of production'. This economic arrangement forms the 'substructure' of society, determining its 'superstructure' of political, legal, and cultural institutions. According to Marx, the core of social inequality lies in the ownership, or lack thereof, of these productive assets. Marx identified two primary classes in capitalist society: the 'bourgeoisie' a...

Answer: Attributional theories of caste focus on identifying and describing the distinct characteristics or attributes that define and differentiate various caste groups within a social hierarchy. These theories, often associated with scholars like G.S. Ghurye, systematically categorize the structural features that perpetuate the caste system. They provide a descriptive framework for understanding its operational principles, moving beyond mere observation. Central to these theories is the concept of **...

Answer: Socialisation is a fundamental process through which individuals learn the norms, values, beliefs, and behaviours appropriate to their society. It profoundly shapes gender identities, which refer to an individual's internal sense of being male, female, both, neither, or another gender, often distinct from their sex assigned at birth. This lifelong process transmits societal expectations about 'masculinity' and 'femininity'. Primary agents of socialisation, particularly the family, play a crucia...

Answer: Social mobility refers to the movement of individuals or groups between different social positions or strata within a society over time. As discussed in the course, it indicates the fluidity of a stratification system, signifying changes in social status that can be upward, downward, or horizontal. A primary distinction is **horizontal mobility** and **vertical mobility**. Horizontal mobility involves moving to a different position at the same social level, implying no change in social status (...

Answer: Caste represents a rigid, hereditary form of social stratification, predominantly found in India, where an individual's social status is ascribed at birth. It establishes a fixed hierarchical order, traditionally linking groups to specific ritual status, occupations, and notions of purity and pollution. This system profoundly shapes life chances, dictating access to education, resources, and power. Caste imposes strict rules, such as endogamy (marriage within the caste) and restrictions on soci...

Answer: An ethnic group is a category of people who identify with each other based on a shared cultural heritage, common ancestry, language, religion, or a combination of these factors. Members typically perceive themselves as culturally distinct from other groups within a society. This shared identity often stems from a subjective belief in common origin and a strong sense of group consciousness. For example, the Naga people in India form an ethnic group defined by their distinct languages, customs, a...

Answer: Cultural reproduction, a concept primarily developed by Pierre Bourdieu, explains how existing social inequalities are perpetuated across generations through the transmission of cultural resources. It posits that children from dominant social classes inherit specific cultural capital—such as language, manners, and aesthetic preferences—from their families. Educational institutions, often implicitly aligned with the cultural codes of the dominant class, reward students who possess this cultural...

Answer: Race is primarily a social construct, not a biological reality, used to categorize people based on perceived physical differences such as skin color or facial features. These categories are fluid, culturally specific, and assign social meanings and hierarchies to human variation, influencing social relations and opportunities. Racism refers to prejudice, discrimination, or antagonism directed against an individual or group based on their perceived racial identity, rooted in the belief that one'...

Answer: Habitus, a core concept by Pierre Bourdieu, refers to a system of durable, transposable dispositions. It represents the internalized structures—ways of thinking, feeling, and acting—that individuals acquire through their past experiences and social conditioning, especially within their social class. Habitus unconsciously guides perceptions, preferences, and practices, shaping one's worldview. The "field" is a structured social space or arena where individuals and groups interact and compete. Ea...